http://journals.cambridge.org/JRRAdditional services for Journal of Relationships Research:Email alerts: Click hereSubscriptions: Click hereCommercial reprints: Click hereTerms of use : Click hereAttachment and Emotion Transmission Within Romantic Relationships: Merging Intrapersonaland Interpersonal Perspectives
Ashley K. Randall and Emily A. Butler
Journal of Relationships Research / Volume 4 / January 2013 / e10DOI: 10.1017/jrr.2013.10, Published online: 25 October 2013
Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1838095613000103How to cite this article:Ashley K. Randall and Emily A. Butler (2013). Attachment and Emotion Transmission Within Romantic
Relationships: Merging Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Perspectives. Journal of Relationships Research, 4, e10doi:10.1017/jrr.2013.10
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JournalofRelationshipsResearch,Volume4,e10,1–10
cTheAuthor(s),publishedbyCambridgeUniversityPressonbehalfofAustralianAcademicPressPtyLtd2013.
doi10.1017/jrr.2013.10
AttachmentandEmotionTransmissionWithinRomanticRelationships:MergingIntrapersonalandInterpersonalPerspectives
AshleyK.RandallandEmilyA.Butler1
CounselingandCounselingPsychology,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,Arizona,USA2
DepartmentofFamilyStudiesandHumanDevelopment,UniversityofArizonaTucson,Arizona,USA
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Theattachmentsystemisresponsibleforemotional-motivationalbondingwithothersandisassociatedwithindividualemotionregulationstrategies(avoidance-disengagement;anxiety-hypervigilance);however,littleisknownhowtheseindividualdifferencesinemotionregulationstrategiesinfluencepartners’interpersonalemotionalexperiences.Priorresearchexaminingthelinkbetweenindividualdifferencesinattachmentavoid-anceandanxietyandemotionalconnectednessincoupleshasinterestinglyshowncounter-intuitiveeffectsofindividualattachmentstylesoncouples’sharedemotions,suchthatattachmentanxietywasassociatedwiththelowestlevelsofemotionalsynchrony(Butner,Diamond,&Hicks,2007).Theseresultsbegforadditionalresearchonwhetherandhowindividualdifferencesinattachmentstylesmoderatethetransmissionofemotionbetweenpartners.Usingdailydiariesandsecond-by-secondmeasuresofemotionalexperiencefrom30couples,itwashypothesisedthatcoupleshighinattachmentavoidance(disengagement)wouldshowlowerlevels,whereascoupleshighinattachmentanxiety(hypervigilance)wouldshowhigherlevelsofemotiontransmission.Resultswerecountertoourpredictions;attachmentavoidanceincreased—andattachmentanxietydecreased—emotiontransmissionbetweenpartners.Findingssuggestattachmentdynamicsmaynothavethesameeffectoncouples’jointemotionalfunctioninginadyadiccontextastheydoonindividuals’emotionalfunctioning.
Keywords:attachment,emotiontransmission,romanticrelationships
Accordingtoattachmenttheory,earlyexperienceswithone’scaregiverhelpcreateinternalrepresentationsorworkingmodelsofattachment(Bowlby,1969/1988).Theseinternalworkingmodelshelpdeterminetheemo-tionalavailabilityandresponsivenessofachild’scaretaker,andextendacrossthelifespan.Assuch,theseinternalworkingmodelsandindividualdifferencesinattachmentstyles—thefundamentalwaypeoplethink,feel,andbe-haveincloserelationships—areassociatedwithdifferentpatternsofemotionregulationwithinromanticrelation-ships(e.g.,Butner,Diamond,&Hicks,2007;Diamond&Hicks,2005;Pietromonaco&Barrett,1997).Littlere-searchexists,however,onexaminingtherolethatintrap-ersonalstrategiesassociatedwithindividualdifferencesinattachmentmayhaveonromanticpartners’emotionalexchanges,specificallythetransmissionofemotionsbe-tweenpartners.
Expandinguponthetraditionalintrapersonalperspec-tive,pastresearchhassuggestedthatindividualdiffer-
encesinattachmentmayhavemoderatingeffectsonsev-eralaspectsofsharedemotionswithincouples(Butneretal.,2007).Countertotheirpredictions,resultsshowedlowercovariationofsimilaremotionsatthesametime(emotionalsynchrony)ofnegativeaffectforcoupleswithgreaterattachmentanxiety;however,inaccordancewithpredictions,partnerswithhighlevelsofattachmentavoidancewerelesslikelytoshowmutualinfluenceoneachother’sratesofchangeofpositiveaffect(coupling).Thisworkshowsthatindividualdifferencesinattach-mentanxietyandavoidancecaninfluencepartners’emo-tionalconnectedness;however,weareunawareofresearchinvestigatinghowindividualattachmentdynamicsmay
ADDRESSFORCORRESPONDENCE:AshleyK.Randall,Coun-seling&CounselingPsychology,ArizonaStateUniversity,446PayneHall,Tempe,Arizona85287-0811,USA.Email:Ashley.K.Randall@asu.edu
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influencehowone’spartnersemotionscanpredicttheirpartner’satasubsequenttimepoint(emotiontransmission;Larson&Almeida,1999).
Thepresentstudyassesseswhetherindividualdiffer-encesinattachmentstyles,specificallyattachmentanx-ietyandavoidance,maymoderateemotiontransmissionbetweenpartnersandaddressesthequestion,‘Arethereattachmentrelateddynamicsthatmayimpedeorexac-erbatethetransmissionofemotionsbetweenpartners?’Weusedailydiariesandsecond-by-secondmomentaryemotionalexperiencefromcouplestoexaminewhetherattachmentsecurityisrelateddifferentiallytotheamountofemotiontransmissionwithinthedyad,andwhetherthisismoreapparentacrossatimespanofdaysorsecondsusingaprospective-changemodelofemotiontransmis-sion.Ultimately,thisstudyhopestogainfurtherunder-standingofthedynamicnatureofhowemotionsbecomeinterconnectedincloserelationships,andtherolethatat-tachmentatanindividuallevelplaysinmoderatingthislinkage.
AttachmentandEmotionRegulation
such,theseindividualsreportneedingconsistentreas-surancefromtheirromanticpartners,andarehypervigi-lanttorelationshipthreats(Mikulincer&Shaver,2005).Avoidantlyattachedindividualshaveapositiveviewofselfandnegativeviewofothers,andthereforeseekdis-tancefromtheirromanticpartners(Mikulincer,Florian,Cowan,&Cowan,2002;Shaver&Hazan,1993).Giventhefactthatattachmentdynamicsareassociatedwithdif-ferentemotionregulationstrategies,itcouldbesuggestedindividualdifferencesinattachmentinsecuritymayalsohaveanimpactonemotionalconnectionsbetweenro-manticpartners.Specifically,attachmentavoidancemayimpede(disengagement),whileattachmentanxietymayexacerbate(hypervigilance),interactionsthatfosteremo-tionalconnectedness.
AttachmentandEmotionTransmission
Theattachmentsystemisresponsiblefortheemotional-motivationalbondingactivitieswithsignificantothers,particularlyundertimesofdistress(Bowlby,1969/1988).Earlyinteractionshelpshapeone’sgeneralinternalwork-ingmodels,orrepresentationsoftheselfandothers,andhelpinfluenceemotionregulationstrategies.Theseworkingmodelsarethoughttoguidesocialinformationprocessing,emotionalreactionstointerpersonalthreatsandrewards,and(ultimately)behaviourthatiscarriedforwardthroughoutthelifespan(Ainsworth,Blehar,Wa-ters,&Wall,1978;Bowlby,1969,1982;Pietromonaco&FeldmanBarrett,2000).Itisimportanttoconsider,how-ever,thatanindividual’sworkingmodelofattachmentmaybedependentonaspecificrelationship;suggestingfluidityacrossrelationshipsandtime(Fraley,Heffernan,Vicary,&Brumbaugh,2011;Holmes&Johnson,2009).Forexample,one’sworkingmodelofattachmentmaybedifferentfortheirparentsbasedoninconsistentinterac-tions(insecureattachment),ascomparedtotheirroman-ticpartnerwhohasshownrepeatedandconsistentinter-actions(secureattachment;Feeney,1999).Irrespectiveofgeneralversusspecificrelationshipworkingmodelsofat-tachment,theirrelationtoemotionregulationstrategies,asdescribedbelow,remainsconsistent.
Individualswithasecureattachmentstylehaveaninnersenseofsecuritythatallowsthemtodealactivelyandconstructivelywithnegativeaffect.Theseattributesservetomaintainandincreaseoverallwellbeing(Mikulincer&Florian,1998).Incontrast,individualswithaninse-cureattachmentstyle—anxiousandavoidant—showpooremotionregulationstrategies.Basedontheirinter-nalworkingmodels,anxiouslyattachedindividualshaveanegativeviewofselfandpositiveviewofother.As
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Emotionsbetweenpartnerscanbecomelinkedovertime,andassuch,interpersonalprocessesmayplayalargeroleinshapingtheemotionalexperiencesofromanticpart-ners(Butneretal.,2007;Saxbe&Repetti,2010;Schoebi,2008).Theinterconnectednessofpartners’emotionshasbeenexaminedinanumberofways(seeButler,2011,forareview).Forexample,onemethodaimstoun-derstandhowpartners’emotionalexperiencesarere-latedtooneanotheratthesametime.Thisconcur-rentday-to-daycovariationofsimilaremotionsisde-finedassynchrony.Anothermethodexamineshowpart-nersmayinfluenceeachother’schangesinaffect—thecouplingofemotions(Butneretal.,2007).Acommonlyusedmodelistheprospectivechangeovertimemodel,whichexamineshowonepartner’semotionsattime1areusedtopredicttheotherpartner’semotionsattime2,whilecontrollingforthefirstpartner’sprioremotion(emotiontransmission;Larson&Almeida,1999).Mostresearchhasfocusedonthetransmissionofnegativeemo-tionsbetweenpartners,wherebyonepartner’semotionaldistressincreasesnegativeorreducespositiveaffectintheotherpartner(e.g.,Hatfield,Cacioppo,&Rapson,1994).Emotiontransmissionhasbeenwelldocumentedintheliteratureandhasbeenshowntooccurinmother-childdyadsinthetransmissionofanger(Downey,Pur-die,&Schaffer-Neitz,1999),aswellasthetransmissionofanxietyincouples(Thompson&Bolger,1999),forexample.
Tothebestofourknowledge,nostudieshaveexam-inedhowindividualdifferencesinattachmentmaymod-eratetheemotiontransmissionbetweenpartners.Onestudyhas,however,examinedattachmentasamoderatorofemotionalsynchronyandcouplingbetweenpartnersusingadiarymethodologyinwhichbothpartnersinromanticcouplesreporteddailyontheirpositiveandnegativeemotionalexperience(Butneretal.,2007).Re-sultsindicatedthatpartners’levelofpositiveandnegativeaffectcovaried,aboveandbeyondtheinfluenceofthe
ATTACHMENTANDEMOTIONTRANSMISSION
emotionaltoneoftheirshareddailyinteractions.Attach-mentanxietyaffectedthepatternofsynchronyfornega-tiveemotion,suchthathigh-anxiouscouplesshowedthelowestsynchronyofnegativeaffect.Thisresultappearstobecounterintuitiveduetothehypervigilancepropertiesassociatedwithattachmentanxiety.Incontrast,thecou-plingofpositiveemotionwasfoundtobenegativelyasso-ciatedwithattachmentavoidance—partnerswithhighlevelsofavoidancewerelessinfluencedbytheirpartner’spositiveaffect.Giventhecomplexityandpartiallyunex-pectednatureofthefindings,itisdifficulttoconcludewhateffectindividualdifferencesinattachmentdynam-icsmayhaveonthetransmissionofemotionsbasedonthissinglestudy.Asrelationshipdistresspreventionandtherapeuticprogramsoftenfocusoncouples’emotionsandattachmentdynamics(e.g.,Johnson&Greenberg,1995),understandinghowdifferencesinattachmentmayimpactthetransmissionofemotionsbetweenpartnersisanotablegapintheliterature.
Asnotedabove,individualdifferencesinattachmentdynamicsareassociatedwithspecificemotionregulationstrategies;attachmentavoidanceisassociatedwithdisen-gagement,whereasattachmentanxietyisassociatedwithhypervigilancetoemotions(Mikulincer,Shaver,&Pereg,2003;Shaver&Hazan,1993).Althoughonestudyunex-pectedlyfoundthatanxietydecreasedemotionalconnec-tionbetweenpartners(Butneretal.,2007)weproposethefollowinghypothesesbasedonthelargerattachmentliterature:
H1:Highattachmentavoidanceinpartners(bothac-torandpartnereffects)isexpectedtobeassociatedwithlowerlevelsofemotiontransmission.
H2:Highattachmentanxietyinpartners(bothactorandpartnereffects)isexpectedtobeassociatedwithhigherlevelsofemotiontransmission.
Methods
Participants
PresentStudy
Thepresentstudyaddsfurtherknowledgeofhowemo-tionsbetweenpartnersbecomelinked,andwhatrole(ifany)individualfactorsplayatthedyadiclevel.Thisstudyexaminestheeffectsofattachmentavoidanceandanxi-etyonemotiontransmissionusingaprospective-changemodelofemotionalexperiencebetweenpartners,andbuildsupontheliteratureintwodistinctways.First,wespecificallyaskedcouplesabouttheiremotionsthatarosedirectlyduetotheirpartner.PriorresearchexaminingattachmentandemotionalsynchronyandcouplinghasusedthePositiveandNegativeAffectSchedule(PANAS)onadailybasis(Watson,Clark,&Tellegen,1988),whichassessesstatesofpositiveandnegativeaffect(Butneretal.,2007).ThePANASreferstoanyemotionsapersonhasexperiencedthatdayanddoesnotdistinguishbetweenemotionsarisingduetodifferentstimuli.Nevertheless,failingtospecifytheoriginoftheemotion,whetheritwasstimulatedbysomethingwithintheromanticrela-tionship(e.g.,conflict)oroutsidetherelationship(e.g.,workstress),couldobscuretheresults.Basedonthena-tureofattachmentanditsfocusoninterpersonalrelation-shipdynamics,itmaybethatattachmentismorelikelytoimpacttransmissionofrelationship-relevantemotionswithinthedyad,ascomparedtoemotionsrelevanttothingsoutsidetherelationships(e.g.,havingabaddayatworkoranannoyinginteractionwithafriend).Sec-ond,weaimtounderstandthetemporalprecedenceinwhichdyadicemotionconnectionsmayoccur(seeBut-ler&Randall,2013).Todothisweinvestigateindivid-ualattachmentinfluencesonlevelsofemotiontransmis-sionusingtwotimeframes:dailydiariesandsecond-by-secondmomentaryemotionalexperienceratingsduringaconversation.
Participantsincludedacommunitysampleofhetero-sexual,committedcouplesrecruitedbyadspostedonCraig’sListfromaSouthwesternpartoftheUnitedStates.Thefullsampleincluded44couples,butonlyasubsetcompletedallmeasuresnecessaryforthepresentanaly-ses,thereforethepresentstudyincluded30male/femaledyads,ranginginagefrom20.8to69.3yearsold(M=33.5,SD=14.2).Approximately46.7%ofthesamplewasmarried.Relationshiplengthrangedfrom4monthsto39years;onaverage,participantsreportedbeinginarelationshipwiththeirpartnerfor6.8years(SD=8.2years).Participatingcoupleshadtomeetthefollow-ingcriteria:(1)bothindividualswereovertheageof18,(2)inaromanticrelationshipforatleast6weeks,and(3)bothindividualswerewillingtoparticipateinastudy.ParticipantsthatcompletedallportionsofthestudyreceivedUS$90.
Procedures
Dataforthisstudywascollectedinthreeparts:aninitialbaselinequestionnaire,alaboratorysessionanda7-daydiary.Interestedparticipantsweremailedaninformedconsentformandapacketofbaselinequestionnaires,includingameasureofattachment(describedbelow).Theywereinstructedtocompletethequestionnairessep-aratelyandnotdiscusstheiranswerswiththeirpartner.Thebaselinequestionnairetookapproximately1hourtocomplete.Thebaselinequestionnairewasreturnedtotheresearchassistantuponarrivalforthecouple’slab-oratorysession.Duringthelaboratorysession,coupleswereaskedtohaveavideo-recorded20-minuteconversa-tionwiththeirpartnerabouttheimportanceofahealthylifestyle,andthepositiveandnegativeimpacttheyhaveoneachother’shealthbehaviours.Followingthecon-versation,partnerswereaskedtowatchtheirinteractiononacomputermonitorinthelab,andusingarating
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dialcontinuouslyratehowtheywerefeelingduringtheconversation(second-by-second;seeMeasuresformoredetails).Uponcompletionofthelaboratorysession,par-ticipantswereaskedtocompletea7-daydiarytwicedaily(oncearoundthemiddleoftheday;e.g.,12:00noon)andtheotherintheevening(e.g.,6:00p.m.).Datawascollectedtwicedailyinordertoaccountfortheinter-personalnatureofemotionschangingoverthecourseoftheday(Laurenceau&Bolger,2005).Allconstructswereassessedwithsingle-facevaliditemsinattempttoavoidparticipantburdenandincreasecompliance.Foreachitem,participantsrespondedwithrespecttoeitherthetimeperiodsincetheylastcompletedthequestionsor,forthefirstday’sentry,sincetheyawokethatmorning.
Measures
DataAnalysis
Attachment
The12-itemExperienceinCloseRelationships(ECR)Inventory—shortform(Wei,Russell,Mallincrokrodt,&Vogel,2007)assesseddifferencesinattachmentavoid-ance(e.g.“Itrytoavoidgettingtooclosetomypartner”)andanxiety(e.g.“Iworrythatromanticpartnerswon’tcareaboutmeasmuchasIcareaboutthem”).Partici-pantswereaskedaseriesofquestionsandwereaskedtoindicatewhethertherelevantbehavioursweregenerallycharacteristicoftheself(1=stronglydisagree;7=stronglyagree).Cronbach’salphaswere.82and.70fortheavoid-anceandanxietydimensions,respectively.Althoughthealphaforanxietyisslightlylow,itisinlinewiththesug-gestionthatinstrumentsshouldhaveareliabilityof.70orbetter(Nunnally,1978).
Dailyemotion
Thedailydiariesincludedtwoitemsassessingpositiveandnegativeemotionstowardsone’spartner(‘Towhatextentdidyouexperiencepositive(ornegative)feelingssuchasjoyorrelaxation(angerorsadness)duetoyourpartner?’).Thescalesrangedfrom0=notatallto10=extremely.
Laboratoryemotionexperience(rating-dial)
Weassessedemotionalexperienceusingabipolarratingdial(Leveson&Gottman,1983).Eachpartnerwasgivenaboxwitharatingdial,whichturned180degreesandclearlylabelledwithanchorsoffrowning(negative)andsmiling(positive)facesontheleftandrightsides,respec-tively.Priortotheratingdialtask,aresearchassistantdemonstratedhowtousetheratingdialandinformedparticipantstocontinuouslyratehowtheyrememberedfeelingduringtheconversation.Theratingdialratingsprovidedacontinuousmeasureofemotionalexperience(negativetopositive)insecond-by-secondincrements.Thedialwascalibratedsothatitrangedfromasignalof0=verynegativeto5=verypositive.
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Dyadicdatathatincludesrepeatedmeasuresovertimehasmanysourcesofinterdependence(Kashy,Donnellan,Burt,&McGue,2008).Forexample,partners’averageemotionscanbecorrelated(between-personcovariationofintercepts),theirratesofchangecanbecorrelated(between-personcovariationofslopes),andtheiremo-tionalfluctuationscanbecorrelated(between-personco-variationofresiduals).Inaddition,therecanbeautocor-relationofoneperson’semotionwiththeirownemotionthenextday(within-personcovariationofresiduals).Inordertoaccountforthesesourcesofinterdependenceweusedthestandardtwo-interceptdyadiclongitudinalmodeldiscussedbyLaurenceauandBolger(2005)andKenny,Kashy,andCook(2006).Thismodelaccom-modatedallsourcesofnon-independence,andallowedforpredictionsofonepartner’semotionfromtheotherpartner’ssameemotionatapriortimepointwhilecon-trollingforthefirstpartner’sprioremotion(prospectivechangemodel).Thismodelprovidesseparateestimatesofeffectsformenandwomen,allowingustoexploregenderdifferences,althoughwedidnothaveanyapriorihypotheses.
Intuitively,dyadicdiarydataisthoughtofintermsofathree-levelmodel,wherebyeachdayisnestedwithinpeoplethatarenestedwithindyads;however,conduct-inganalysisinthismannerhasseveralstatisticalproblems(seeRaudenbush,Brennan,&Barnett,1995).Inordertodealwiththeseproblemsandbasedontherecom-mendationsinthefield,wecollapsedthe3-level-modelintotwolevels:(1)time-laggedemotionand(2)nestedwithinpeople.Inordertoaddressthelevel3(dyads),wecreatedadummycodedvariablethatsimultaneouslyes-timatesseparatelevel1modelsforeachpartner.Specifictoourdata,twodummycodevariableswerecreatedforthemalesandfemalesinordertodistinguishwhichlevel1modelappliedtoeachpartner.First,the‘Male’isscoredas0ifthepartnerisafemaleand1ifthepartnerisamale.Thereverseisdoneforthe‘Females’,where0isscoredifthepartnerisamaleand1ifthepartnerisafemale.Thelevel1modelsarethenembeddedwithinoneequation:Emotiondayi,couplej,genderg=π1ijm(Male)
+π2ijf(Female)+eijg
Intheaboveequation,π1ijmreferstothelevel1modelformalesandπ2ijfreferstothelevel1modelforfemales.Asthisequationdoesnotincludeaninterceptterm,sep-arateinterceptsforthemalesandfemalesarecalculated.Ourfinallevel-1modelfortransmissionwas:Emotiondayi,couplej
=(Male)∗[β0j+β1j(partner(same)lagged-emotionij)+β2j(own(same)lagged-emotionij)]
ATTACHMENTANDEMOTIONTRANSMISSION
+(female)∗[β0j+β1j(partner(same)lagged-emotionij)+β2j(own(same)lagged-emotionij)]+eijg
Weusedthepartner’ssameemotionlaggedasthetransmissionvariable,whichmakesthisaprospectivechangemodel.Wecouldpredictthetransmissiontermasthepartner’semotionpredictingchangesintheotherpartner’semotions,controllingforthereceivingpart-ner’sownprioremotion.Boththepositiveandnegativerelationship-emotionswerecentredonthepartner’sownmeanandcapturedtheprospectivechangeofpartners’emotions.Wealsotreatedallpredictorsasfixedeffects;thereforetherewasonlyonelevel2equationoftheform:
β0j=ϒ00+U0j
Intheaboveequationϒ00referstotheoverallintercept(i.e.,participants’averageemotion)andU0jreferstotherandominterceptvariance.Whensubstitutedbackintothelevel-1modelthesetermsaremultipliedbythe‘Male’and‘Female’dummycodes,whichallowsseparateesti-matesofeachinterceptandrandominterceptvariances,aswellasthecovarianceamongthoseterms.
Anactor-partnerversionoftheprospectivechangemodelwasusedtotestbothactorandpartnerattachmentsecurityasmoderatorsofemotiontransmission(Cook&Kenny,2005;Kennyetal.,2006).Allpredictorsweretreatedasfixedeffectsduetotherelativelysmallsamplesize.Totesthypothesis1,themodelincludedtheactorandpartnereffectsofattachmentavoidance,theactorandpartnereffectsofthelaggedemotionvariableandtheinteractionsofactorandpartneravoidancebylaggedpartneremotion.Thelaggedpartneremotiontermrepre-sentstransmissionandtheinteractionofthattermwiththeavoidancetermsprovidesthefocaltestofourhy-pothesis.Weranthesamemodelreplacingattachmentavoidancewithattachmentanxietytotesthypothesis2.ProcMixedinSASversion9.2wasusedforallanalyses(SASInstitute,2004).Weconductedpreliminaryanaly-sesontimeasapredictorvariableandfoundthatithadnomaineffectonanyoftheemotionvariables;thus,itwasnotincludedasapredictor.Wedidnotfindasignificanteffectofageonattachmentavoidance,F(1,25)=.58,ns,orattachmentanxietyF(1,25)=1.24,ns.Additionally,wedidnotfindasignificanteffectofrelationshiplengthonattachmentavoidance,F(1,28)=2.25,ns,orattach-mentanxiety,F(1,28)=0.86,ns.Basedonthis,weranallmodelswithoutageandrelationshiplengthincludedascovariates.Finally,tocontrolforTypeIerror,weap-pliedaBonferronicorrectiontothesignificancetests.Wehadatotaloffoursignificancetests.Specifically,wetestedeffectsofattachmentavoidanceandanxietyseparatelyformenandwomen.Thereforewesetourcriticalpvalueat.0125(.05/4).
TABLE1
DescriptiveStatisticsforAllVariables
Men
Variable
Age(inyears)
AttachmentavoidanceAttachmentanxiety
Positiverelationship-emotionsNegativerelationship-emotionsSecond-by-secondemotionalexperience(ratingdial)
Mean34.53.42.67.02.32.9
SD14.51.60.82.12.31.0
WomenMean32.52.92.87.11.13.1
SD14.11.20.91.82.01.1
Note:Therewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.
Results
DescriptiveStatistics
Table1providesmeansandstandarderrorsforallstudyvariables.Beforeturningtothespecifichypothesistesting,wefirstexaminedthemaineffectsofattachmentstyleonemotion.
Levelsofdailyemotion
Wefoundasignificantmaineffectofattachmentavoid-anceonpositiverelationship-emotions,F(1,733)=13.78,p<.001,buttherewasnosexdifference.Overall,moreavoidantpeoplereportedlesspositiverelationship-emotions,b=−0.46,p<.001.Therewasnosignifi-cantinteractionofsexandattachmentanxietyonlevelsofpositiverelationship-emotions,F(1,733)=2.06,ns.Additionally,therewasnoeffectofattachmentanxietyonlevelsofpositiverelationship-emotions,F(1,733)=2.38,ns.
Wefoundasignificantinteractionofsexandat-tachmentavoidancefornegativerelationship-emotions,F(1,722)=6.37,p=.012.Overall,highlyavoidantmenshowedsignificantlygreaternegativerelationship-emotions,b=0.57,p<.001,comparedtolessavoidantmen.Therewasnoeffectofattachmentavoidanceonnegativerelationship-emotionsforwomen,b=0.09,ns.Therewasalsoasignificantinteractionofsexandattachmentanxietyonnegativerelationship-emotions,F(1,722)=7.17,p=.008.Overall,highlyanxiousmenshowedsignificantlygreaternegativerelationshipemotions,b=0.88,p=.01,comparedtolessanxiousmen.Therewasnoeffectofattachmentanxietyonnega-tiverelationship-emotionsforwomen,b=−0.21,ns.Insummary,consistentwithpriorfindings,attachmentinse-curitiespredictedlesspositiverelationship-emotionsandgreaternegativerelationship-emotions(Berscheid,1983;Simpson,1990),andourresultsshowthatthismaybetruerformenthanwomen.
Laboratoryemotionalexperience
Resultsrevealedamaineffectofattachmentavoidanceonsecond-by-secondmomentaryemotionalexperience,F(1,3957)=10.03,p=.002,buttherewasnosex
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difference.Overall,moreavoidantpeoplereportedlesspositivemomentaryemotionalexperience,b=−0.16,p=.002.Therewasnosignificantinteractionofsexandattachmentanxietyonhowparticipantsratedtheirmomentaryemotionalexperience,F(1,3957)=2.90,ns.Additionally,wefoundnoeffectofattachmentanxietyonhowparticipantsratedtheirmomentaryemotionalexperience,F(1,3957)=.01,ns.
Hypothesis1:AttachmentAvoidanceandEmotionTransmission
Hypothesis2:AttachmentAnxietyandEmotionTransmission
Wehypothesisedthathighattachmentanxietyinpartnerswouldbeassociatedwithhigherlevelsofemotiontrans-mission.Again,wefoundnosupportforourhypothesis,butinsteadfoundsomeevidenceofthereversepattern.Positiverelationship-emotions
Resultsshowednointeractionbetweenattachmentanxietyandtheamountoftransmissionofpositiverelationship-emotions.Specifically,one’sownattachmentanxietydidnotinteractwiththetransmissionparame-terforpositiverelationship-emotionsforeithermenorwomen(actoreffect);Men:F(1,603)=0.36,ns;Women:F(1,603)=0.00,ns.Additionally,therewasnoeffectofthepartner’sattachmentanxietyonthetransmissionofpositiverelationship-emotionsforeithermenorwomen(partnereffect);Men:F(1,603)=3.20,ns;Women:F(1,603)=0.51,ns.
Negativerelationship-emotions
Wefoundnointeractionbetweenattachmentanx-ietyandtheamountoftransmissionofnegativerelationship-emotions.Specifically,one’sownattach-mentanxietydidnotinteractwiththetransmissionparameterfornegativerelationship-emotionsforei-thermenorwomen(actoreffect);Men:F(1,585)=0.06,ns;Women:F(1,585)=0.05,ns.Additionally,thepartner’sattachmentanxietydidnotaffectthetrans-missionofnegativerelationship-emotionsforeithermenorwomen(partnereffect);Men:F(1,585)=1.52,ns;Women:F(1,585)=0.08,ns.
Laboratoryemotionalexperience
Aspredicted,wefoundasignificantinteractionbetweenattachmentanxietyandthedegreeofemotiontransmis-sionforthesecond-by-secondemotionratings,butagainitwasinthedirectionoppositetoourprediction.Attach-mentanxietypredictedlessemotiontransmissionforthemen.Formen,boththeirownattachmentanxiety,F(1,3773)=6.71,p=.01,andtheirpartner’sattachmentanxiety,F(1,3773)=9.04,p=.003,predictedlessemo-tiontransmission,b=−.03,t(3773)=−3.01,p=.003.Insummary,contrarytoourpredictions,theresultssuggestattachmentavoidancecanincrease,whereasat-tachmentanxietycanreduceemotiontransmissionbe-tweenpartners(seeTable2).Specifically,highlyavoidantwomenshowedmoretransmissionoftheirpartner’sdailypositiveemotions,andattachmentanxietypredictedlesssecond-by-secondratingsofemotiontransmissionforthemen(actorandpartnereffects).
Wehypothesisedthathighattachmentavoidanceinpart-nerswouldbeassociatedwithlowerlevelsofemotiontransmission.Resultsshowthehypothesiswasnotsup-ported.Infact,someevidencesuggeststhatthereverseoccurred.
Positiverelationship-emotions
Aspredicted,resultsshowedasignificantinteractionbe-tweenattachmentavoidanceandthetransmissionparam-eter(partnerlaggedemotion)forpositiverelationship-emotionsforwomen,F(1,603)=6.75,p=.01,buttheeffectwasintheoppositedirectiontowhatwehypothesised.Specifically,highlyavoidantwomenweremorelikelytoshowtransmissionofpartner’spositiverelationship-emotions(actoreffect),b=6.63,t(603)=3.35,p=.001.Therewasnoeffectofavoidanceonwomen’semotionsbeingtransmittedtomen,F(1,603)=0.26,ns.
Negativerelationship-emotions
Overall,therewasnosignificantinteractionbetweenat-tachmentavoidanceandthedegreeoftransmissionofnegativerelationship-emotions.Specifically,one’sownattachmentavoidancedidnotinteractwiththetrans-missionparameterfornegativerelationship-emotionsforeithermenorwomen(actoreffect);Men:F(1,585)=2.46,ns;Women:F(1,585)=0.66,ns.Additionally,thepartner’sattachmentavoidancedidnotpredictthetransmissionofnegativerelationship-emotionsforeithermenorwomen(partnereffect);Men:F(1,585)=3.66,ns;Women:F(1,585)=0.52,ns.
Laboratoryemotionalexperience
Usingsecond-to-secondmeasuresofemotionalexperi-ence,wefoundnointeractionbetweenattachmentavoid-anceandthedegreeofemotiontransmission.Specifically,one’sownattachmentavoidancedidnotinteractwiththetransmissionparameterforratingsofemotionalex-perienceforeithermenorwomen(actoreffect);Men:F(1,3773)=0.07ns;Women:F(1,3773)=0.03,ns.Additionally,thepartner’sattachmentavoidancedidnotaffectthetransmissionofnegativeother-emotionsforei-thermenorwomen(partnereffect);Men:F(1,3773)=0.02,ns;Women:F(1,3773)=0.58,ns.
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Discussion
Webeganthisstudywiththeoverarchingquestionofwhetherandhowattachmentdynamicsmayinfluenceemotiontransmissionofrelationship-relatedemotions
ATTACHMENTANDEMOTIONTRANSMISSION
TABLE2
SummaryofSignificantFindingsInteractionEffect
Men
Women
ActorPartnerActorPartner
AttachmentavoidancexPositiverelationship-emotions
Negativerelationship-emotions
Second-by-secondemotionalexperience
AttachmentanxietyxPositiverelationship-emotions
Negativerelationship-emotions
Second-by-secondemotionalexperience
*
**
Note:Asterixindicateasignificanteffectatp<.0125.
betweenpartners.Specifically,wehypothesisedthathighavoidanceinpartnerswouldbeassociatedwithlowerlev-els,whereashighanxietyinpartnerswouldbeassociatedwithhigherlevelsofrelationship-relevantemotiontrans-mission.Ourresultswerecontrarytoourhypotheses,butreplicatedexistingliteraturethatalsoshowedcounter-intuitiveeffectsofattachmentdynamicsonemotionallinkagebetweenpartners(Butneretal.,2007).
Onepossiblereasonforthereplicatedbutunexpectedfindingsisthathistoricallytheinfluencesofattachmentonemotionregulationinrelationshipshavebeenviewedatanindividuallevel,ratherthanasadyadicconstruct(e.g.,Diamond&Hicks,2005;Diamond,Hicks,&Otter-Henderson,2008;Mikulincer&Shaver,2003).Importantly,thedyadisahigher-levelsystem,whichhasemergentpropertiesthatcannotbeexplainedatanindividuallevel(Butler,2011;Rohrbaugh&Shoham,2011).Therefore,itcouldbethatalthoughindividualattachmentdynamicsinfluencehowanindividualregu-lateshisorheremotions(e.g.,disengageorbecomehy-pervigilant),one’srelationshipmayserveasanemotionregulatoraboveandbeyondone’sindividualattachmentdynamics(seeButler&Randall,2013).Thus,hypothe-sesonemotionalconnectednessbetweenpartnersderivedpurelyfromanindividual-levelconsiderationmaynotbeappropriateforexplainingdyadicphenomena.
EffectsofAttachmentDynamicsonEmotionTransmission
tweenpartners;however,thiseffectwasonlyforwomenandforpositiverelationship-emotions.Specifically,highavoidantwomenweremorelikelytoshowtransmissionoftheirpartner’spositiverelationshiprelevantemotions.Inconsideringthisunexpectedfinding,werealisedthattherearetwoviewsofavoidance-relatedattach-ment(Mikulincer&Shaver,2003).Oneviewpositsthatavoidantindividualshaveanactiveattachmentsystem,butthatitprodsthemtowarddefensivebehaviourssuchasdisengagingwhenfacedwithstressors.Theotherviewpositsthatavoidantindividualshavearelativelyinactiveattachmentsystem,thusaccountingfortheiraloofbe-haviourinrelationshipcontexts.Focusingonthesecondview,itcouldbesuggestedthatavoidantindividualsarenotnecessarilypronetoactivelydisengaging,especiallyunderlowstressconditions.Indeed,insituationsthatwouldreinforcetheirpositiveviewofselftheycouldbeevenmoresusceptiblethansecureindividualstopickinguptheirpartner’semotions.Thepresentresultsareinaccordwiththisidea,asitwasthetransmissionofpos-itiverelationshiprelevantemotionsthatwasenhancedforavoidantwomen.Giventherelativelywiderangeofrelationshiplengthinourstudy,itcouldbethatcoupleswhohavebeentogetherlongerhavefiguredoutwhatworksinthecontextoftheirspecificrelationship.Forexample,menwithavoidantwomenmay,overtime,re-alisethatbeingopentoexpressingpositivethingsabouttherelationshipactuallymakestheiravoidantpartnerbe-havelessdistantly,whilevoicingtheirnegativeemotionsabouttherelationship(e.g.,nagging)onlydrivestheirpartnerfurtheraway.Therefore,attachmentavoidanceatanindividuallevelmayhaveaneffectonthedyadicemotionpatternbetweenpartnersthatismorecomplexthansimpledisengagement.
Attachmentanxiety
Baseduponthehypervigilantbehavioursassociatedwithattachmentanxiety(Mikulincer&Shaver,2005),wepre-dictedthatcoupleswithhigherlevelsofattachmentanx-ietywouldshowgreateremotiontransmission.Contrarytoourpredictions,coupleswithgreaterattachmentanx-ietyshowedlessemotiontransmission.Thiseffectwasspecificallyfoundformen,suchthatmenwerelesslikelytoshowtransmissionifeithertheyortheirpartnerhadhighattachmentanxiety.Simplystated,inhighlyanx-iousrelationships,menwerelesslikelytoshowevidenceoftransmissionoftheirpartners’emotions.Interestingly,thesefindingsreplicatethoseofButneretal.’s(2007),whichfoundthathighanxiousmenwithhighanxiouswomen(highanxiouscouples)showedthelowestcovari-ationofdailynegativeaffect.
Whatmightaccountforthisreplicatedpatternofun-expectedresults?Anxiousindividualsusemoreemotion-focusedcoping(Lazarus&Folkman,1984),suchasig-noringtheproblemorkeepingoneselfbusy,whichmaycontributetothemnotopenlydiscussingtheissuewith
JournalofRelationshipsResearch
Attachmentavoidance
Wepredictedthatcoupleswithgreaterattachmentavoid-ancewouldshowlessemotiontransmission,duetothewell-establisheddisengagementpropertiesrelatedtoat-tachmentavoidance(e.g.,Shaver&Mikulincer,2007).Contrarytoourpredictions,attachmentavoidanceac-tuallyincreasedthelevelofemotiontransmissionbe-
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ASHLEYK.RANDALLANDEMILYA.BUTLER
theirpartner.Ifhighlyanxiouspartnersaredistractingthemselvesfromtheirnegativeemotionalexperienceinanefforttohavelessnegativeinteractions(Feeney,Noller,&Callan,1994),itcouldbeinferredthattheotherpart-nerwouldnotshowtransmissionoftheiremotions.Forexample,ifcouplesknowthatwhenonepartnerisupsettheydonotwanttotalkaboutitandwouldratherdosomethingtotaketheirmindoffthenegativeemotion(Cassidy&Berlin,1994),theneutralpartnermaynotbelikelytoshowtransmissionofthatemotion;doingsowouldbecounter-productiveandnotyieldpositiveresultsforthecouple.Thus,similartoavoidance,indi-vidualattachmentanxietymaygeneratedyad-levelemo-tionalpatternsthatgobeyondsimplehyperactivation.
LimitationsandFutureDirections
Theresultsofthepresentstudyneedtobeconsideredinthelightofseverallimitations.First,thisstudyusedsecondarydatafromalargerstudythatwasoriginallygatheredtoinvestigaterelationships,eatingbehaviours,andemotions(e.g.,Burke,Randall,Corkery,Young,&Butler,2012).Becausenotallcouplescompletedthenec-essarystudymeasures,wehadareducedsamplesize,whichlimitsthegeneralisabilityofourresults.Wedo,however,acknowledgethatouruseofrepeatedmeasuresdata(i.e.,dailydiaryandsecond-by-secondmomentaryexperience)helpedaccountforthesmallsamplesize.Second,whiletheparticipantscompletedanattach-mentmeasure,thismeasurewasnotofcentralinterestinthelargerstudysothelessreliableshortformwasused(ExperienceinCloseRelationships—shortform;Weietal.,2007).Itispossiblethatamorecomprehensiveassessmentofattachmentdynamics(e.g.,internalwork-ingmodels)couldaltertheresults.Forexample,itmaybebeneficialtoconsidermeasurementofgeneralversusrelationship-specificworkingmodelsofattachment(Fra-leyetal.,2011).Havingamorespecificassessmentofat-tachmenttoone’scurrentromanticpartnerwouldallowustounderstandhowemotiontransmissionmayoccurwithinaspecificrelationship,ascomparedtoacrossallrelationshipswhereitmaynotbeasrelevant.Addition-ally,itwouldbebeneficialtoexaminehowattachmentmayinfluenceemotiontransmissionbetweenpartnersusingdiaryitemsorlaboratorytasksspecifictoexamin-ingattachmentrelateddynamics.Forexample,sincetheattachmentsystemisactivatedparticularlyundertimesofstress(Bowlby,1988),partners’emotionsshouldbemeasuredduringastressfulinteraction.Futureresearchshouldmakeuseofparadigmsinwhichtheattachmentsystemisclearlyactivated(e.g.,talkingaboutsomethingstressfulinone’srelationship).
Third,couplesinthepresentstudyvariedagreatdealontheirrelationshiplength.Forexample,somecoupleswereinrelationshipsforaslongas39years.Undoubtedly,aftersuchtime,coupleswouldlearnhowto‘dealwith’
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theirpartner’sidiosyncrasies(inrespecttoattachment),andhowtonavigatetheirrelationship.Onesimplisticpossibilityisthatrelationshiplengthmaybeamoderatorofemotiontransmission,wherebypartnersearlyintheirrelationshipmaybelesssusceptibletoemotionaltrans-missionascomparedtocoupleswhohavebeentogetherlonger.Secondaryanalysesshowedthiswasnotthecaseinthepresentdata.
Lastly,additionalresearchshouldfocusonothermod-eratingfactorssuchashowlongpartnershaveknownoneanotherandbeeninvolvedinaromanticrelationship.Itcouldbesuggestedthatpartnerswhohavebeentogetherlongermaybeeithermoreorlesslikelytoexperienceemotiontransmission.Ononehand,longer-termcouplesmaybemoreinterdependentandmorelikelytoexperi-enceoneanother’semotions.Ontheotherhand,couplesmaylearntocopewiththeirpartnerbyavoidingthetrans-missionofnegativeemotions,especiallyifitmaybedetri-mentaltotherelationship(seedyadiccopingliterature;Bodenmann,2005).Thusitmaybethatinnewrelation-shipssimplerpatternsofattachmentdynamicsemergethataremoreinlinewiththeorisingaboutattachmentattheindividuallevel,especiallywhenthepartnersarestilllearningtoaccommodateeachother’semotionalre-sponses.Assuch,wemayneedtoconsidermorereciprocalandcomplexdyadicattachmentprocessesinordertopre-dictemotionalconnectionsinlongertermrelationship.Overall,alargequestionstillexists—whendointer-personalemotionconnectionsoccur?Severalstudieshaveusedavarietyoftimepointsrangingfromoneobservationperday(Butneretal.,2007)tofourtimepointsperday(morning/uponwaking,latemorning/beforelunch,af-ternoon/leavingwork,andevening/beforebed;Saxbe&Repetti,2010);however,thesestudiesexaminedotherin-terpersonalprocesses(coupling,covariation/synchrony),anddidnotspecificallyexamineinterpersonalemotiontransmission.Usingdatafromavarietyoftime-frames(dailydiariesandsecond-by-secondlaboratoryemotionalexperience),wewerenotabletomodelemotiontransmis-sionbetweenpartners.Thus,wewouldarguethatfutureresearchshouldcombinemultipleobservationsperdayandmultipleobservationsperhour,inordertobestassessunderwhatconditions,andforwhom,emotiontrans-missionoccurs(Butneretal.,2007;Butler&Randall,2013).
Conclusions
Thepresentstudyisthefirsttoexaminehowattachmentdynamicsimpactemotiontransmissionbetweenpartnersusingaprospective-changemodelofemotionalexperi-ence.Importantly,theresultsreplicatedunexpectedfind-ingsfromastudythatfocusedonemotionalsynchrony(Bunteretal.,2007),ratherthantransmission,suggest-ingthatattachmentanxietymayreliablyreduce(ratherthanenhance)dynamicemotionalconnectionsinclose
ATTACHMENTANDEMOTIONTRANSMISSION
relationships.Understandingcouples’emotionalcon-nectedness,andwhetherornotthisdependsonone’sin-dividualattachment,mayhaveanimpactontherapeuticinterventionstofosterattachmentsecurity,suchasEmo-tionFocusedTherapy(Johnson&Greenberg,1995).Theseinterventionsmayachievetheirtherapeuticeffectsthroughthemediatingvariableofemotionaltransmissionorconnectednessbetweenpartners.Together,thepresentstudyprovidespreliminaryevidencetosuggestunder-standingthecomplexemotionalconnectednessbetweenpartnersmayhaveimportantsignificanceforrelationshipresearchersandmentalhealthprofessionalsalike.
Acknowledgments
TheauthorswouldliketothankDavidSbarraandNoelCardfortheircommentsonanearlierversionofthismanuscript.ThisresearchwasconductedattheUniver-sityofArizonaandsupportedinpartbytheFrancesMcClellandInstituteforChildren,Youth,andFamilies,intheNortonSchoolofFamilyandConsumerSciences.
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