现代语言学所有名词解释

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2). uistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

3). General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.

4).

Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.

5).

Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.

6).

Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.

7).

Language competence: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his

language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.

8).

Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.

9).

Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.

10).

Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

11). Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

12).

Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.

13).

Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

14).

Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.

15). Displacement: language can be used to

refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

16). Cultural transmission: While we are

born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

17). Design features: It refers to the

defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication

18). phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the

study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages

19). auditory phonetics: It studies the speech

sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.

20). acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech

sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

21). international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It

is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.

22). Broad transcription: the transcription

with letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.

23). Narrow transcription: is the transcription

with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.

24). diacritics: is a set of symbols which can

be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.

25). Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords

are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.

26). Voicing （辅音）: Sounds produced while

the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

27). Vowel: the sounds in production of which

no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.

28). Consonants: the sounds in the production

of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.

29). phonology: Phonology studies the system

of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

30). phone: Phones can be simply defined as

the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.

31). phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic

features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized as a certain phone by a certain phonetic context.

32). allophone: The different phones which

can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example [l] and [l] 33). phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast

refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.

34). minimal pair: When two different forms

are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.

35). Suprasegmental features: the phonemic

features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.

36). tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are

caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. The meaning-distinctive function o the tone is especially important in tone languages, for example, in Chinese.

37). intonation: When pitch, stress and sound

length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. For example, English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fa Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.

38). Inflectional morphology: The inflectional

morphology studies the inflections

39). Derivational morphology: Derivational

morphology is the study of word-formation.

40). Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful

unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of two morphemes: “boy” and “ish”.

41). Free morpheme: Free morphemes are

the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” are all free morphemes.

42). Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes

are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound morphemes.

43). Root: A root is often seen as part of a

word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.

44). Affix: morphemes manifesting various

grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“.

45). Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of

various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.

46). Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a

word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

47). Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of

the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

48). Stem: A stem is the existing form to which

a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.

49). Derivation: Derivation is a process of

word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.

50). Compounding: Compounding can be

viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.

51). syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics

which studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.

52). hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the

sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.

53). syntactic category: Apart from sentences

and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or object in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

). phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that

allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.

55). X-bar theory is a general and highly

abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). (In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. )

56). sentence: A sentence is a structurally

independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

57). finite clause（定式子句）: a clause that

takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.)

58). simple sentence: a simple sentence

consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

59). coordinate sentence（并列句）: A

coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.

60). complex sentence（复合句）: a complex

sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成一体的） into the other. That is, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.

61). grammatical relations: The structural and

logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical

relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.

62). linguistic competence: Universally found

in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.

63). transformational rules: Transformational

rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.

). D-structure: D- structure is the level of

syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.

65). S-structure: a level of syntactic

representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement

66). Move a: a general movement rule

accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.

67). Universal Grammar: a system of

linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.

68). Sense: Sense is concerned with the

inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

69). Reference: Reference means what a

linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

70). Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the

sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

71). Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact

that the same one word may have more than one meaning.

72). Homonymy（同音异义，同形异义）:

Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

73). Homophones（同音异义）: When two

words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.

74). Homographs同形异义: When two

words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.

75). Complete homonyms: When two

words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale

v. /scale. n.

76).

Hyponymy（下义关系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general is called a superordinate（上坐标词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.

77). Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning (on different dimensions).

78).

Componential analysis（成分分析法）: Componential analysis is a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. For example: the word “man” is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.

79).

Predication analysis（述谓结构分析）: It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.

80).

The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.

81). Two-place predication: A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.

82). Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

83).

Context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It consists of (It is generally considered as constituted by) the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the

specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

84).

Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

85).

Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. 86). Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable;

87).

Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.

88).

Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

).

Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

90).

Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

91).

Cooperative Principle: It is a principle advanced by Paul Grice. His idea is that in making conversations, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

92).

Conversational implicature: Most of the violations of the cooperative principles give rise to what Paul Grice calls “conversational implicatures.” When we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect and implies an extra meaning.

93). historical linguistics: a subfield of linguistics that studies language change (or historical development of language). 94).

diachronic linguistics: a term used instead of historical linguistics to refer to the study of language change at various points in time and at various historical stages.

95).

Old English: a major period in the history of English development that began in 449 and ended in 1100.

96).

Middle English: a major period in the history of English development that began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England in 1100 and ended in 1500.

97). Modern English: a period in the history of English development that began roughly from 1500 to the present.

98).

the Great Vowel Shift: a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies（差异） between English pronunciation and its spelling system.

99). apocope: the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.

100). epenthesis: the insertion of the consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.

101).

Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.

102).

Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit. For example: sailboat, big-mouth, three-year-old.

103).

Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words. For example: uglification（丑化），finalize. 104).

Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. For example: UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization国际教科文组织)，CD-ROM （compact disk of read-only-memory）

105).

blending: a process of forming a new word by combining parts of two words. For example: smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 106).

abbreviation: an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. For example: TV (television), Dr (doctor), hr (hour), Jan (January)

107).

clipping: clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. For example: gym (gymnasium), zoo (zoological garden), fridge (refrigerator), e-mail (electronic mail), hi-fi (high fidelity).

108).

Back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. For example: typewrite (typewriter), edit (editor)

109).

semantic broadening: the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. 110).

Semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the

meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.

111). protolanguage: the original (or

ancestral) form of a language family which has ceased to exist.

112). langrage family: a group of historically

(or genetically) related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.

113). Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon

of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.

114). Semantic shift: Semantic shift is a

process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.

115). Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of

systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.

116). Sound assimilation: Sound

assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.

117). cognate: a word in one language which

is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source.

118). internal borrowing: the application of a

rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy（类推，类似） to its earlier operation. 119). sociolinguistics: the subdiscipline of

linguistics that studies language variation and language use in social context.

120). speech community: a group of people

who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.

121). speech variety: Speech variety, also

known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.

122). language planning: language

standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its

pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.

123). sociolect: a variety of language used by people belonging to a particular social class.

124).

idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual’ s speech.

125).

register: a functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.

126).

standard language: a superposed（迭生的，重合的） prestigious variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. (P170)

127). nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages

128).

lingua franca: a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.

129).

pidgin: a marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication.

130).

creole: A creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.

131).

diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular social function and used for a particular situation

132).

bilingualism: ilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.

133).

ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.

134).

slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of

arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.

135).

linguistic taboo: an obscene, profane, or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite” society.

136).

euphemism: a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression.

137).

psycholinguistics: the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processed of language production, comprehension and acquisition.

138).

cerebral cortex: the outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.

139). brain lateralization: the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.

140). linguistic lateralization: hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.

141).

dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.

142).

Broca’s area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, which is vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.

143).

angular gyrus: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’ s area. The angular gyrus is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.

144).

cerebral plasticity: According to Lenneberg, prior to the end of the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .

145).

linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined by the structure of their native language.

146). right ear advantage: The speech

signals presented in the right ear goes directly to the left brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals in the left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguistic signal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.

147). the critical period: an early period of

one’s life extending the age of puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly , a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.

148). the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory

put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars) which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.

149). linguistic relativism: Whorf believed

that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .

150). overt thought: When language and

thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard speech as “overt thought.”

151). interpersonal communication: It

means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another, or to control each other’ s behavior.

152). intrapersonal communication: the

process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts.

153). subvocal speech: a term used to refer

to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.

1) language acquisition: a general term

used t refer to the development of a person’s first ,second , or foreign language.

2) input: the language which a learner hears

or receives and from which he or she can learn.

3) caretaker speech: simple, modified

speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.

4) behaviorist learning theory: a theory of

psychology which, when applied to first

language acquisition, suggests that the learner’s verbal behavior is conditioned or reinforced through association between stimulus and response.

5) holophrase: a single word that appears in children’s early speech and functions as a complex idea or sentence.

6)

Holophrastic sentences: They are children’s one-word utterances. They are called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.

7)

telegraphic speech: the early speech of children, so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams (such as non-substantive words 虚词and inflectional morphemes.)

8)

Second language acquisition: Second language acquisition (SLA) is a general term which refers to the acquisition of a second language(L2) ,in contrast with first language acquisition (FLA). SLA is also used as a general term to refer to the acquisition of a foreign or subsequent language (such as a third or fourth language). Thus, SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language (LI).

9)

Acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.

10)

Learning: Learning, however, is defined by Krashen as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.

11) language transfer: the effect of the first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.

12) interference: the use of one’s first language rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target language. 13)

contrastive analysis: a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner’s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the affects of interference.

14)

error analysis: an approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners which suggests that many leaner errors are not due to the learner’s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as overgeneralization and simplification of rules.

15)

interlanguage: the approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her

transitional competence in the target language.

16) fossilization: a process that sometimes

occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent or a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.

17) instrumental motivation: the learner’s

desire to learn a second language because it is useful for some functional,

“instrumental” goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information.

18) integrative motivation（介入性学习动机）:

the learner’s desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language. 1). acculturation: a process of adapting to

the culture and value system of the second language community.